Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Criminal Punishment in American Society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Criminal Punishment in American Society - Essay Example Other societies, mostly the dictatorial ones, do not take the criminal to the court. The criminal is punished arbitrarily. A prisoner, or the criminal, has his rights that are protected under the constitution. These rights should not be taken away from him, regardless of the fact that he has broken a law. The constitution of America has undergone many amendments since its inception. The first ten amendments that took place are referred to as the bill of rights (Todd et al 67). Contained within these ten amendments are the rights that should be enjoyed by a prisoner (Todd et al 67). These amendments took pace at the same time. They were put forward on September twenty fifth, 1789 (Todd et al 67). In their book "American Corrections", Todd et al identify two amendments that relates to the right of the prisoner and his relationship with the correctional institution. The eighth amendment is such one amendment that the book talks about. The amendment was carried out in the year 1791. It covers cruel and unusual punishments meted out to the prisoner. It says, in part ".excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted" (Todd et al, 2000). This amendment still inf... This amendment still influences the relationship between the prisoner and the correctional institution. The institution holding the prisoner should not treat him using inhuman techniques like electric shocks, lashing or food rationing. The courts should not issue an excessive punishment to the prisoner. The punishment should be in line with the crime committed. For example, a prisoner cannot be issued with a death sentence for pick pocketing. Unusual punishments should not be meted out to the prisoner by the incarcerating institution. Some authorities have been known to sexually abuse and harass the inmates. For instance, the united states have been accused of castrating prisoners taken in the Iraq war. Inhumane acts have been committed to terrorist suspects in the now defunct gutaenamo bay prison. It thus altered how the prisoners related with the correctional institutions. They are respected and treated as human beings not like animals. The prisoners are not given punishments like hard labor. As a result of this amendment, living conditions in the holding institutions are periodically checked to ensure that the prisoner is not under any threat as far as his human rights are concerned. The Fourteenth Amendment and Right S of the Prisoner Another amendment that touches on the rights of the prisoner as identified in this book is amendment number 14. It states in part that ".no state shall deprive any citizen of life, liberty or property.without due process of the law" (Todd et al, 2000). What this means is that a prisoner who is a citizen of the country should be taken to court before he is punished. The due process been referred to means alignment in court and sentencing by the court. The prison should not incarcerate an inmate,

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Emerging Trends in Education

Emerging Trends in Education For individuals, the potential benefits lie in general quality of life and in the economic returns of sustained, satisfying employment. For countries, the potential benefits lie in economic growth and the development of shared values that underpin social cohesion. This statement highlights the importance of education not only from individuals point of view but also from the nations perspective. Through this project I would highlight the changes in the educational trends since years and the present scenario of education system. Apart from it I would also throw light on the future prospects of such changes. Education plays a major role in individuals growth as well as in nations development. There are certain factors which have led to the changes in the educational system like liberalization, globalization, growing demand etc which would be discussed in detail in the later stages. This project would tell us that what are the major areas where changes in education has taken place and in what form. CHAPTER 1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The study on Online education and the challenge of MOTIVATION (Timothy .Arnold) This case examines the increasing importance of online education and some of the problems related with it due to a wider and new concept. Many students get demotivated since online education classes are a new education format, it also does not possess many of the known support systems that we can find inside a traditional school structure. These support systems are what helps keep students motivated. Though online education is very important to be competitive but still due to lack of efficient faculty it is becoming a difficult concept for learning. The lack of social interaction can also be a significant contributing factor for online education students easily losing the motivation to study. The case also tells us that problems could be overcomed through identifying a goal and work towards its attainment. This process helps you build up your pride in your accomplishments. It could also be overcomed by increasing chat with the instructors. The study on Benefits of Online Education And Degrees in India This case tells us coming age is of online education. Online education gives students an opportunity to have greater control over their own schedule compared to traditional education opportunities and settings. Time and money are two of everybodys most precious commodities these days. Online degrees have been wisely accepted in job market, most online students have no problem to use their online degree to start their career or find a job. Taking an online education course also saves time. Online education is a relatively new field that depends on the Internet to provide the delivery of instruction to students. THE STUDY ON DISTANCE LEARNING Through this case I have analyzed that what student expects from distance education. It tells us that students who have family pressure and due to some reason can not attend regular classes, distance learning / distance education is mainly meant for those students. The reason for that, they did not want to leave their present job and want some success in their life after getting higher degree courses. if we talk about the number of colleges that offer distance learning, the list is like annamalai university, Delhi university, Panjab university, Guru Nanak Dev university, IGNOU, JAMIA HAMDARD university, Kurukshetra university are some of the famous distance learning centers that offers various types of distance education courses in the fields of arts, science, medical, accountancy, it, engineering and many more. This shows that day by day distance learning is gaining its importance. THE STUDY ON ROLE OF EDUCATION IN ECONOMICS GROWTH (SANA) This case highlights that the growth of the economy and development of a country is depending upon the education system of that particular country. European countries have already opened doors for international students and these countries are always emphasis on improving their education structure, developing more colleges and universities on country side areas and always in a way to update their course content on regular basis. The study on Higher Education in INDIA (BY Suma Chitnis) It concludes the era of how the higher education exist in India after the independence: First, higher education was to provide the manpower required for economic growth and for an efficient delivery of services such as healthcare, transportation, communication and community welfare -considered basic to a developed society. And, it was to contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the manner required to place India on par with the developed world. Second, higher education functions as an instrument of equality. It was recognized that these objectives were the very opposite of those that universities had served in British India. ROLE OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN BASIC EDUCATION (ANURADHA DE, MANABI MAJUMADAR, MEERA SAMSON AND CLAIRE NORONHA) it tells us that private schools have been expanding rapidly in recent years. It cautions that increasing privatization will only increase the already strong gender bias in schooling. The number of private institutions is expected to increase, if government system is allowed to deteriorate further. CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION Education is important not only for the full development of ones personality, but also for the sustained growth of the nation. Education is the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life. The growth of the economy and development of a country is depending upon the education system of that particular country. Most of the developed countries and other developed European countries already open doors for students and these countries are always emphasis on improving their education structure, developing more colleges and universities on country side areas and always in a way to update their course content on regular basis. There have been some significant changes of emphasis between subjects, most notably the raising of the status of basic literacy and numeracy. Educations nowadays have been totally technology based. Online education, though a comparatively new system of delivering education, has come a long way to be recognized. More and more colleges and universities have started adding online courses as well as other forms of distance learning. As compared to other countries, India has also launched many types of different degree courses offered by various universities and colleges of India. Like education degree courses have played an important role in improving and developing education sector of India. Education is chosen to be the principal instrument for the countrys transformation from a poor, dependent, economically and technologically backward imperial colony into an advanced nation. In the larger design for this transformation which calls for economic development as well as extensive social and political change higher education is given much importance. Education is the only possession no one can ever take away from you. It offers a multiplicity of top quality education programs of interest to international students. Efforts to make learning more interactive and more fun for students appear promising. COMPARISON OF EDUCATIONAL TRENDS IN PRE ERA AND POST ERA In contrast with the traditional situation in which teaching staff develops courses on their own, and choose the way they teach and assess student progress (the teacher as king of his class) but now with the changing times, learning environments of the future will be designed by multi-disciplinary teams of experts. Experts in developing course material, programmers, graphical designers, and experts in assessment, all work together in designing rich modularized learning environments that offer alternative learning routes to different types of students. Earlier students focused more on the primary learning materials that was offered by teaching staff. But now the emphasis is on developing competencies needed to become knowledge workers, and if work and learning are more interconnected, one expect learning environments to become more open. Students nowadays with the changing times go beyond the primary learning materials offered by teaching staff and are expected to explore independently other information sources as well. With several educational options available to students today, newer trends are emerging in this field which has completely changed the traditional held perceptions about education in India. Several career options that were earlier not considered to be traditional have emerged as the most sought after education and career options. Various career options in like radio jockeying, radio management, news anchoring, program anchoring, news reading and reporting for the electronic media, content writing, fashion designing, event management, hospital management, medical transcription etc, have opened up several newer avenues for education. Traditional study courses like medicine, engineering and other subjects still have lots of demand. However, with the changing trends in the global and national economic scenario newer courses are fast emerging as alternative. The recent trends in education have certainly shown a deviation from the earlier trends. Online Education is fast becoming a major preferred mode of education among students. Enrolling to regular courses is increasingly getting highly competitive in India; So online education and distance education has come as a wonderful alternative and several students opt for this. Online education means web based learning, but there is no universally accepted definition. One of the main reasons for this is the provision that one can get degrees from various renowned universities from anywhere in India. Distance education is given through correspondence courses, where the student and the teacher are separated in time and space and sometimes both. Distance learning is doing a wonderful job by enabling the less advantaged sections of the society have an opportunity to get educated. CHANGES IN EDUCATIONAL TRENDS There are profound changes going on in the educational system. Almost every aspect of primary and secondary education has changed. These changes are needed because of ever growing pressure in the school systems themselves, partly because society itself is changing into one in which knowledge work becomes ever more important, and partly because of the very information and communication technologies which are transforming the economies. By confronting trends and technological developments, a new concept is emerged with a vision of a global learning infrastructure in which the role of schools and universities will be drastically changed, a radical transformation of the educational system. Major reasons behind these changes are:-: Globalization and liberalization Changes have led to more flexible learning arrangements. Education is under constant budget pressure, thus there is a need for more efficient and effective education. There are too many dropouts in the current educational system. Demand for more professional and skilled employees is increasing. Following are some of the examples of changes in educational trends:- MOBILE LEARNING- Todays students expect constant access to information-in the classroom and beyond. As educators all over the world are discovering, mobile learning has solved many problems. Students devour engaging, customized curricula when its delivered on the iPod or iPhone.Audio and video podcasts let students study at their own pace, wherever and whenever they want. ONE-TO-ONE COMPUTING- One-to-one computing means that every student or teacher is given to a computer, the internet and software anytime and anywhere. This way they can make maximum utilization of their time and become more efficient. PERSONALIZED LEARNING- Personalized Learning is a unique, blended classroom-based and non classroom-based public educational model that is tailored to the needs and interests of each individual student. The key attributes that comprise the Personalized Learning model are based upon how students learn most successfully, including a strong emphasis on parental involvement, smaller class sizes, more one-on-one teacher and student interaction, attention to differences in learning styles, student-driven participation in developing the learning process, technology access, varied learning environments, teacher and parent development programs, and choices in curriculum programs. VIDEO TRAINING- To enhance the quality of teaching and learning of pre-service training. The use of digital video was introduced. As a result of the use of video, trainees are able to improve their teaching performances in areas such as classroom management, group work, and motivation and presentation skills. PRIMARY EDUCATION The proposed changes to primary education seek to ensure that students are equipped not just with content knowledge, but also with the necessary skills and values to thrive in a fast-changing and globalised future. They build on the strengths of the current system, and seek to raise primary education to a new level. ATTITUDE OF THE TEACHER-The most important aspect of the approach is the attitude of the teacher, which highlights that learning is a form of play which fosters the blossoming of the childs natural development. Learning is made interesting, enjoyable, and full of fun. A large portion of the teaching materials are produced at the school by the teachers, who customize their teaching aids to suit the interests and knowledge levels of the students. HEALTH AND NUTRITION- First attention is given to the health and nutrition of the children to ensure that they have the physical energy and natural attention span needed for learning. Nutritional and medical supplements are provided to under-nourished children from low income families. Free exercising and play are encouraged to build strength and stamina. STUDENT-TEACHER RATIO IS KEPT VERY LOW- The student-teacher ratio is kept very low to enable the teacher to work with small groups of children at a time while others are absorbed in learning games or recreational play. The most effective ratio is 10 students per teacher during pre-school, LKG and UKG and twenty five students per teacher during standards 1 to 5. However, since the teaching methods are intense, each student actually needs to attend only 2Â ½ to 3 hours of class per day, enabling each teacher to effectively handle double the number of students. TEACHING CONFINED TO BRIEF PERIODS- Children learn spontaneously when their interest and curiosity are awakened. Teaching is confined to brief periods according to the natural attention span of each child, which is normally 15-30 minutes daily during the first two years. It is never extended beyond the childs span of interest. STORY TELLING- Story telling is used to make learning fun and to communicate basic values of goodness, beauty, harmony, responsibility and right conduct. Information on people and other living things, places, history, geography, and other cultures are presented to the child in the form of stories, pictorial information and explanations combined together to present facts in a living, integrated context rather than as a series of separate divorced subjects. NUMBER LINE METHOD- Rapid acquisition of basic math skills is achieved through the use of number line method which enables the child to physically experiment and act out different combinations of addition and subtraction. HIGHER EDUCATION Higher Education is not only a tool for economic development but a means of bolstering the confidence of a country and bringing about social change. Todays students are consumers looking for quality of service and recognition, access and equity, financing and cost, building of intellectual capital and capacity as well as policy coherence. QUALITY, ASSURANCE AND RECOGNITION It focuses on providing information and capacity to empower higher education stakeholders to make better informed decisions in the new world of higher education. This initiative aims to provide information to protect students from inadequate learning resources and low-quality provisions. Recognition refers to the acceptance of a foreign certificate, diploma or degree of higher education as a valid credential by the competent authorities and the granting to its holder the same rights enjoyed by persons who possess a national qualification for which the foreign one is assessed as comparable. DIGITAL LIBRARIES AND EDUCATION. More and more information is made available through the web. Search engines assure the accessibility of this material. Groupware allows synchronous communication between teachers and students worldwide. Online market research is quick and easy, and this market information can be combined with transaction log data allowing institutions to monitor consumer (i.e., student) response on an ongoing basis. Through the Internet, course material can be offered independently of time and place. Modularization makes it possible to offer different and flexible learning routes. INTERNSHIPS AND INDUSTRIAL VISITS Additions of internships and industrial visits have encouraged students to be more interactive and develop their skills in a better way. Industrial visits help students to take full advantage of learning opportunities and also helps students to become more effective and competitive. On the other hand by doing internship one can gain valuable work experience, apply classroom knowledge, gain confidence, increases interaction and creates opportunities to know and understand people better which would also help individual to be flexible. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING (VET) Due to vocational education more students are getting employment quickly as it involves more involvement of industry, internships and due to this there is also less efforts thats needs to be taken by the institutions in order to train employees as students are already well versed and familiar with the work to be undertaken so it helps industries to save their training costs. TECHNICAL EDUCATION As the technical education courses in India are quite diverse, the number of institutes providing technical courses in India is also huge. More than 33o universities and 18000 training colleges are providing technical education. Technical education is day by day becoming the need of the hour. Technical education is given importance because without technical education one would not be able to handle work efficiently as would find it difficult to cope up with as changing world would involve more of technicalities and without much of its knowledge one cannot survive in industry for long. Nowadays technology is used as an additional tool for traditional teaching and learning processes and also technology is used as the center of an innovative teaching and learning process DISTANCE EDUCATION One of the main reasons for this is the provision that one can get degrees from various renowned universities from anywhere in India. Distance education is given through correspondence courses, where the student and the teacher are separated in time and space. Distance learning is enabling the less advantaged sections of the society have an opportunity to get educated. There are different types of distance learning options available to students. Some of them are Postal correspondence courses interactive CD-ROM courses pocket PC/mobile learning course Telecourse/ broadcast course through radio or television and synchronous or asynchronous internet courses. Just like online education, in distance education too, students will not have to relocate to new places or make any changes in their existing work. PRIVATE EDUCATION The concept of private education has been increasingly given importance. Private schools often provide superior results at a fraction of the unit cost of government schools. It has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama. FACTORS LEADING TO CHANGE IN EDUCATIONAL TRENDS Several developments in the workplace, changes in student demographics, and the economic trends are forcing educational institutions to change. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE WORKPLACE Employers are seeking employees who are technology and information literate. The education of new knowledge workers requires emphasis on information access, problem solving, analysis, evaluation, and decision making. Rapid change and uncertainty in the workplace encourages employers to seek individuals who already have the required skills. The increasing number of part-time workers require more flexible access to education. Knowing how to access information rather than memorizing information is central to coping with this rapid change. ECONOMIC PRESSURES Economic pressures are one of the reason for educational change. As most of the faculty is already working as hard as they can. And by trying to get the faculty to work harder will not produce greater efficiency. Due to increasing demand and to reduce unemployment rate changes in education is necessary. COMPETITION Private business has begun to see profit potential in offering short, inexpensive market-specific training that appears to be highly relevant to students. This training directly competes with traditional college programs. Access to the Internet allows learners to take courses virtually anywhere in the world. There are currently hundreds of courses available from accredited North American colleges in all academic disciplines. Geographic location is no longer relevant. Global competition is increasing constantly. INTERNATIONALIZATION, REGIONALIZATION AND GLOBALIZATION Internationalization, regionalization and globalization are key factors that shape Higher Education. The development of regional education and research areas in various parts of the world challenges national values and cultures and calls for new regional instruments (e.g. for quality assurance and recognition). The specific challenges facing small states, whether island or landlocked, requires special attention in the context of globalization. FUTURE PROSPECTS The pace of change is mandating to produce a faster, smarter, better grade of human being. Future education system will be unleashed with the advent of a standardized rapid courseware-builder and a single point global distribution system. SUCCESSFUL ENTREPRENEURS With the introduction of changes in education system it would give rise to successful entrepreneurs. As sound and capable executives are rendered completely ineffective in a startup environment but as the concept of provision of education has changed and more emphasis is laid on technical and managerial skills these executives are emerging or found more immensely. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Changes in education would also lead to development of the nation as individuals would be more efficient and capable which would directly contribute to the nations growth and development. It would also lead to more innovations and raise the standard of living as individuals would be more organized. With more knowledge and high skills one would become highly competitive and could easily adapt in any part of the country. It would also lead to better functioning of the units. TECHNOLOGICAL ERA Coming era would be technological era, The Information Age, also commonly known as the Computer Age, is an idea that the age will be characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information freely, and to have instant access to knowledge that would have been difficult or impossible to find previously. The idea is linked to the concept of a Digital Age or Digital Revolution, and carries the ramifications of a shift from traditional industry that the Industrial Revolution brought through industrialization, to an economy based around the manipulation of information. SKILLED AND HIGHLY EFFICIENT WORKERS It would also lead to highly skilled and efficient employees who have been provided quality education. The employees would carry a positive framework or outlook and would be very effective in their decision making and would also carry technical and managerial skills which would help them to be more productive and qualitative in nature. CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH AND METHODOLOGY OBJECTIVES To study the comparison of educational trends in the past era and the present scenario. To study the effects of changing educational trends on the Indian society. To study the changes in the present educational system To know about the factors leading to the change in the education. CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION In this study I have analyzed that globalization has played a major role in changing educational system. Foreign culture has a direct impact on the country. The companies that are entering Indian market are looking for the individuals who are highly qualified and consists of a mix of technical and managerial skills i.e. person should have complete technical knowledge and must have skills of leadership and should also be highly efficient. Changed educational system would lead to successful entrepreneurs. And these Successful entrepreneurs would be those who innovate, plan strategically, hold the risk bearing ability and stand strong against all the stumbling blocks transform them into stepping stones by bringing sweeping changes and revolutionizing. There had been lot many changes in the educational system whether it is incase of primary or higher education. In case of primary education stress have been reduced as education is taught keeping in mind the health of the students. Visual aids, gaming, story telling etc are given much importance in order to provide education to the students. More emphasis is laid on this method because it is found that this is much faster means of learning and also helps students to develop their personality and leads to more interaction. Whereas on the other hand incase of higher education more emphasis is laid on imparting quality education .quality education helps individual develop better learning skills. Internships have been introduced which encourages students to relate their college based knowledge with the practical knowledge and they can visualize the work actually done in the industry. Through this one can also focus on their goals more accurately. With the increased industrial visits one can develop its interactive skills and also improve its learning. It has also been analyzed that with the increasing competition changes in the educational methods are equally important as traditional method of teaching have become totally obsolete. With the changing time, the era would be totally technology based. Lack of computer education could also lead to unemployment as it would become need of the hour. Without computer education one would become unable to work efficiently and effectively. It would also lead to wastage of time and also resources. Such individuals would not be as productive as computer learning nowadays have become a necessity for every individual. Due to this fact most of the colleges have increasingly introduced more of computer aided programs and also included its training as a part of their curriculum. This case also highlights the introduction of new courses and learning programs. It also had laid emphasis on new educations systems like distance learning, mobile learning, online education that includes learning through interaction with faculty on cams. FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS FINDINGS A change in education has led to better individual development as well as development of the nation. Technology plays a major role in imparting education. Burden of students during primary stage is reduced as the education is conducted more in informal manner through role playing, story telling, conducting games etc. Higher education is improved by introducing internships, projects and by introducing industrial visits which adds more value to it. Globalization, liberalization and demand of the hour has led to educational changes. Educational change has bought a positive impact on the society.it would also improve literacy rate. SUGGESTIONS As per my opinion more emphasis must be given on e-learning than to book learning as it would help individual to conduct its operations easily in any part of the country as technology is improving day by day and access to it is equally important. More emphasis should be laid on industrial visits, technology accessibility i.e. theoretical learning should be directly linked with practical learning. More of practical approach should be used. Lectures and interaction with renowned personalities in the concerned field should be increased. It would help students develop their intellectual level, motivate them and develop confidence in them. Last but not the least as per my viewpoint more informal method of learning should be used, as it would help individual to develop its skills at a faster pace than the formal approach. CONCLUSION India is a developing nation and it has been expanding is every fields. Education saw an essential change gradually after Independence. Development of education in India brought about a transformation and the concept of education got modified. All levels of education in India, from primary to higher education portray a challenge. India got well-known educational institutions such as the IITs, IISc, IIMs, NITs, AIIMS, ISI, JU, BITS, and ISB. The higher education system of India is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. Education travelled a long way and thus Indian education system introduced certain advantageous system such as online education In India. Online education is a system of education training which is delivered primarily via the Internet to students at remote locations. Online education encompasses various degrees and courses. Indian education has different phases. Students are provided with extensive scope and courses to choose from. One enjoys the opportunity of selecting the required field. The system of Distant Education in India is becoming increasingly popular. The students choosing distance learning process are benefited with the modern pattern followed. The availability of distance learning courses has assured that a person can pursue education from any state or university accordingly. So this highlights the increasing importance of changes in education and their benefits and effects on Indian society. CHAPTER 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Sites referred:- http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/tiol.html www.

Friday, October 25, 2019

I Am Norman Rockwell :: Art Theory Essays

I Am Norman Rockwell Two weeks ago my family and I walked the three miles from Michigan Avenue in Chicago up to the Historical Society to see the Norman Rockwell show. I've been thinking about it ever since: Although the week before had been unseasonably warm and the trees budding, this day was in the 20's and a cold wind was blowing straight from the north, the direction we were walking. My family walked north through the cleaned up Rush street where my wife had secretly gone during high school looking for a safe kind of danger. There were ghosts of buildings no longer there: Gino's Pizza, the Jazz Showcase, and more. Just down Wabash my father, more than 20 years ago had taken me to Jim Diamond's steakhouse and bought me my first glass of wine, lying about my age. It's gone too, like my father. I was overcome with the tyranny of signs, in particular, Peirce's triadic model of representamen, object, and interpretant. Seamus Heaney writes about the ghost of a tree cut down when he was a boy, and says that this space has come to represent his umphalous, his world center. The empty or replaced buildings were ghosts mostly not of the dead but of the living, of the living who had moved on and changed. But the signs, the private set of signs my wife and I knew were there. I used to think that Peirce was talking about the physical presence of a representamen, a stop sign in the most used example, or a stone wall, or a river. I know now that when Chandler in his explanation of Peirce says cryptically a representamen is the form the sign takes and is not necessarily material. What does this have to do with

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Finding Alternatives To Transportation Fuels Environmental Sciences Essay

There is a big planetary involvement in happening options to transit fuels to replace petroleum-based fuels. The possible for biofuels to run into the turning energy demands every bit good as contribute to a decrease in the nursery gas emanations chiefly in the transit sector. Increasing oil monetary values and the uncertainty about continued oil supplies have added more involvement in the thought of biofuels. Most treatment has focused on the advantages of ethyl alcohol and biodiesel production in the US and Europe in footings of: Justifying clime alteration, where biofuels substitute fossil fuels and their related nursery gas emanations. These benefits apply to the bulk of states but for developing states the production and usage of biofuels have extra possible benefits which are: Promotion of rural development by production a locally generated signifier of energy for processing and transit Making rural employment and wealth Decrease of deforestation and land debasement as biofuels besides substitute for the energy current derived from wood Multiple usage harvests can be reallocated for energy or nutrient demands depending on altering local demands and precedences In the current state of affairs were in biofuels are a large precedence policy in many different states. Towards of import issues such as nursery gas decrease, energy security, decrease of poorness and aid to keep sustainable progress biofuels shows good positiveness. However if they are non implemented in the right manner there could be more possible danger and injury than existent good. Were they could stop up doing nutrient deficits, environmental jobs every bit good as increased poorness. The inquiry is what is the best attack to take? 1st-generation biofuels such as sugar cane ethyl alcohol in Brazil, maize ethyl alcohol in US, oilseed colza bio-diesel in Germany, and palm oil bio-diesel in Malaysia are made utilizing consecutive frontward engineering. The basic provender stocks for the production of first coevals biofuels are frequently seeds or grains such as wheat, which yields amylum that is fermented into bio-ethanol, or sunflower seeds, which are pressed to give vegetable oil which can be used in bio-diesel. first-generation-biofuels Fig1 – 1st coevals biofuels Even though most analyses indicate that 1st coevals biofuels have a net benefit in footings of less nursery gas and energy balance they besides have several jobs. Current issues for many 1st coevals biofuels are that they: contribute to higher nutrient monetary values due to competition with nutrient harvests are an expensive option for energy security taking into history entire production costs excepting authorities grants make non run into their claimed environmental benefits because the biomass feedstock may non ever be produced sustainably are speed uping deforestation potentially have a negative impact on biodiversity compete for scarce H2O resources in some parts. Second coevals biofuels use waste biomass and agricultural residue such an illustration being maize chaffs this makes them a more practical solution ( M.B. Charles, P. Barnes 2008 ) . The usage of waste biomass and easy-to-grow feedstock ‘s has a lower environmental impact when compared to 1st coevals biofuel production ( M.B. Charles, P. Barnes 2008 ) . By utilizing specially designed micro-organisms, the feedstock ‘s tough cellulose is broken down into sugar and so fermented. Alternatively a thermo-chemical path can be taken whereby biomass is gasified and so liquefied in a procedure known as ‘biomass-to-liquid ‘ ( E.L. Kunkes, D.A. Simonetti 2008 ) . The 3rd coevals types of biofuels use improved feedstock instead so bettering the fuel devising procedure. Algae is a possible beginning which can bring forth about 30 times more energy per square metre compared to set down harvests ( Anon 2009 ) , harmonizing to ( G. Warwick 2009 ) the procedure in which to pull out the algal oil is non yet up to the best of ability. Fourth coevals type biofuels combine genetically optimized feedstock ‘s which are made in order to capture C with bugs in order to do the fuels ( J. Houghton, S. Weatherwax, J. Ferrel 2006 ) . To guarantee that 4th coevals biofuels are a C negative beginning of fuel the key is the gaining control of CO2 ( ARS National Program 2007 ) .The job on the other manus with this is the deficiency of equal C gaining control.Examples of biofuelsVegetable oil: Lower quality oil is normally used as fuel and comestible vegetable oil is non. Used vegetable oil is going more common in being used into bio-diesel. In order for vegetable oil to be used it must be heated to cut down its viscousness either by electric spirals or heat money changers for efficient combustion.Used_vegetable_cooking_oil Fig 2. Vegetable Oil Biodiesel: In Europe this is the most used biofuel type. By a procedure known as transesterification it is produced from oils or fats and is a liquid similar in composing to fossil/mineral Diesel. Oils are assorted with sodium hydrated oxide and methyl alcohol ( or ethyl alcohol ) and the chemical reaction produces biodiesel fatty acid methyl ( or ethyl ) ester and glycerin. One portion glycerin is produced for every 10 parts biodiesel. Biodiesel sample.JPG Fig. 3 biodiesel sample Bio intoxicants: Produced from intoxicants strictly where the most common being ethanol and least common being propanol and butyl alcohols are produced by micro beings and enzymes through the agitation of sugars or starches which is the simplest method or by cellulose which is more complicated. Bioethers: Bio quintessences are cost-efficient compounds that act as octane evaluation foils. They besides enhance engine public presentation whilst cut downing engine wear and toxic exhaust emanations. Reducing the sum of ground-level ozone, they contribute to the quality of the air we breathe. Biogas: Biogas is produced by the procedure of anaerobiotic digestion of organic stuff by anaerobes. It can be produced either from biodegradable waste stuffs or by the usage of energy harvests fed into anaerobiotic digesters to supplement gas outputs. The solid by merchandise known as digestate can be used as a biofuel or a fertiliser. Landfill gas is a less clean signifier of biogas which is produced in landfills through of course happening anaerobiotic digestion. If it escapes into the ambiance it is a potent nursery gas. Biogas_pipes Fig. 4 biogas pipes Syngas: Syngas is a mixture of C monoxide and H is produced by partial burning of biomass, that is, burning with an sum of O that is non sufficient to change over the biomass wholly to carbon dioxide and H2O. Solid biofuels: Examples include wood, sawdust, grass film editings, domestic garbage, wood coal, agricultural waste, non-food energy harvests, and dried manure. ( Biofuel. 2009 ) . When natural biomass is already in a suited signifier such as firewood it can fire in a range or furnace straight to supply heat or raise steam. When natural biomass is in an inconvenient signifier such as sawdust, wood french friess, grass, urban waste wood, agricultural residues the typical procedure is to densify the biomass. This procedure includes crunching the natural biomass to an appropriate particulate size known as pig fuel which depending on the compaction type can be from 1 to 3A centimeter which is so concentrated into a fuel merchandise.Environmental ImpactsBiofuels being produced may do a figure of environmental jobs such as: Land usage alterations Expansion in agribusiness Changes in agricultural patterns Transportation system of the biomass used to do biofuels Conversion of the biomass into fuels After fuels are made disposal of the staying waste stuffs Over the past few old ages several surveies have shown environmental issues Current analysis shows a great scope of environmental jobs and benefits that vary greatly depending on several factors such as: the type of biofuel the biomass feedstocks and the cultivation methods used the engineering used to change over the biomass into fuel the type of energy used to power the transition the location where feedstocks and biofuels are produced the extent to which a turning demand for biofuels induces alterations in land usage and land screen In the antediluvian times the usage of wood and wood coal were common and liquid biofuels were indispensable in the development of cars and burning engines this shows biofuels are non new. Biofuels chiefly played a portion in poorer states whereas fossil fuels were the chief beginning of energy. Recent involvement has largely been in biofuels of liquid signifier as these can easy replace fuels used for transit without major alterations needed. The difference in monetary value between liquid fuels and solid fuels is extremely wedged due to the convenience of liquid fuels ( FAO 2008b ) . Graph 1 below shows the difference in cost for coal which is a solid and rough oil a liquid over the clip of 50 old ages by looking at the graph we can clearly see the difference in monetary value turning dramatically making 2007 oil costs 12 times more than coal for tantamount energy. oil V coal monetary value Graph 1 – US crude oil & A ; coal monetary valuesFood Vs FuelFor the production of ethyl alcohol sugar cane which largely comes from Brazil and maize which comes largely from the US are used. For biodiesels rapeseed, canola oil, soya bean and oil thenars are used. Since these harvests are besides used for nutrient shows us clearly that there is direct competition between nutrient and biofuel for harvest production this competition is already doing major strain on planetary nutrient supplies. Harmonizing to ( FAO 2008a ) is was recorded in 2007 that merely 5 % of the planetary production of cereals rice, wheat, maize was used in the production of biofuels and the bulk of it was used for direct ingestion for worlds or for carnal provenders. However cereal usage for biofuels is increasing at a much higher rate than that of nutrient usage. Besides it is recorded that from 2006 to 2007 there has been an addition of 37 % usage of maize in the US to do ethyl alcohol ( FAO 2008a ) . From 2006 Brazilian sugar cane covered an country of 7 million hectares half of this country was used for ethanol production and the other half for sugar production. In 2007 the production of sugarcane country was about 10 % of the sum. Most of the enlargement was on grazing land 65 % , 17 % on soya bean and 5 % on maize and orange. Since carnal denseness in Brazil is really low it seems that the loss of about 0.5 million hectares of grazing lands in Brazil is non impacting the meat production. A little addition in carnal denseness can therefore balance out the losingss of grazing land. But so far from what it seems sugarcane spread outing in Brazil is non doing any excess force per unit area on the nutrient monetary values in the state ( Goldemberg J. , S. T 2008 ) . A major job in Brazil is the supplanting of soya bean from Central Brazil by sugar cane in the way of the Amazon part which adds force per unit area of deforestation in the country ( Martinelli, L. A 2007 ) . The potency for competition between biofuels and nutrient production will construct up as biofuel production additions. Even if non-food harvests are used as the feedstock for the biofuels the possibility for competition with nutrient production still exists if the biofuel harvests are grown on land capable for nutrient production ( Searchinger 2008 ) .Emissions of Greenhouse gasThe most recent analyses show a positive benefit on the net nursery gas emanations for the usage of liquid biofuels where there are little differences for corn-ethanol to a significant greater difference for production of ethyl alcohol from sugar cane or biodiesel from palm oil ( Gallagher, E. 2008 ) . Corn used to bring forth ethyl alcohol can hold both a net positive and negative consequence of over 30 % when compared to fossil fuels in conformity to chart below corn-ethanol scope from 12 % to 20 % for the mean net nursery gas nest eggs which is taken from recent analyses ( Searchinger 2008 ) . Most analyses have concentrated on how biofuels have effected nursery gas emanations by concentrating on how much part CO2 plays. Even though CO2 is a major cause of planetary heating there are besides other gases which play a major portion such as azotic oxide ( N20 ) and methane ( CH4 ) . Harmonizing to ( Prather et al. 2001 ) azotic oxide can be up to 300 times greater in its ability to warm the planet than CO2 for an tantamount mass over a 100 twelvemonth mean period. net economy in nursery gas emanations Graph 2 – Net nest eggs in nursery gas emanations in comparing to fossil fuels In dirts, deposits and H2O azotic oxide is created accidentally as a side consequence of bacterial processing of N. The increased usage of N fertiliser is the chief ground of the planetary addition in N2O fluxes where merely some of this moves straight from agricultural Fieldss to the ambiance. Most the flux occurs in downstream aquatic ecosystems which get the N pollution chiefly from carnal waste every bit good as agricultural Fieldss. Overall, about 4 % of the N that human activity introduces into the environment ends up as N2O in the ambiance. Biofuel production is clearly lending to the planetary N2O flux given that biofuel harvests often are greatly fertilized with man-made N fertiliser, largely in industrial states. An of import idea for most analyses of net nursery gas emanations from biofuels is that they merely consider the current degree of production and do non undertake the impacts of land usage alteration that can be an add-on to the spread outing usage of biofuels. In the United States when more land is used for turning harvests for biofuels feedbacks through the planetary economic system can be given to ensue in land transitions which even include tropical deforestation in other states. These alterations in land can hold really harmful jobs on nursery gas emanations and demands to be included in the net nursery balance of the biofuels. For maize ethanol the emanation of nursery gas is doubled compared to firing fossil fuels because of indirect land ( Searchinger 2008 ) . To utilize liquid biofuels for transit might non be the best of thoughts in order to increase energy security or to cut down nursery gas emanations whereas a more efficient usage may be in stationary installations to bring forth electricity or heat. The critical issues for both Greenhouse gas emanations and nutrient production are which land types will be converted to biofuel harvests and the harvests that will be grown. If biofuel production is targeted towards lands earlier converted to agriculture but non presently being used for harvest production such as abandoned farmland the Greenhouse gas and biodiversity effects will be much more positive than if biofuel production causes the direct or indirect transition of natural ecosystems ( Campbell 2008 ) . Harmonizing to the current rating if biofuels are produced in ways that cut down transition of home ground e.g. by using waste merchandises, well increasing outputs, and aiming ruined grazing land and discarded cropland, biofuels could play a positive function in extenuating clime alteration, heightening environmental quality, and beef uping the planetary economic system.Biofuels and WaterCrops and biomass for nutrient or energy need big sums of H2O ( Molden 2007a ) . Water demand at the current clip for harvests is modest but easy this can lift as energy monetary values lift due to increased biofuel production due to concerns over the impacts of nursery gas emanations. This leads to more competition between nutrient and biofuel for land and H2O this will use more force per unit area particularly in H2O scarce countries. There are plenty land and H2O resources to feed the universe but if today ‘s environmental and nutrient tendencies carry on this will take to H2O crisis in many parts of the universe every bit good as many possible H2O jobs unless sufficient policy steps are implemented harmonizing to a recent appraisal on H2O direction in agribusiness ( CA 2007 ) . The H2O demands of energy derived from biomass are about 70 to 400 times more than that of other energy bearers such as fossil fuels, air current, and solar. More than 90 % of the H2O needed is used in the production of the feedstock ( Gerben Leenes 2008 ) .Effectss on aquatic ecosystemsStream flow decrease and ordinance: Reduced watercourse flow and in utmost instances dried up rivers are cause due to H2O backdowns from rivers, lakes and groundwater for irrigation. Some lakes are shriveling because of over extraction upstream illustrations being Aral Sea and Lake Chad ( Falkenmark 2007 ) . Wetland debasement: Wetlands give of import adaptable ecosystem services for H2O resources such as saving of inundation and deposits, groundwater recharge, base flow ordinance, natural filter, biodiversity. Water ordinance and drainage for agricultural intents may be two of the prima causes for loss in wetland countries ( Finlayson and D'Cruz 2005 ) . Water quality: Direct impacts come from fertiliser, pesticide and weedkiller application. Nutrient pollution has of import impacts on the quality of groundwater and river H2O and may ensue in eutrophication of wetlands. Other water-quality jobs relate to the sewerage produced in the production of biofuels. Changes in H2O tabular arraies: Over pumping of groundwater resources taking to groundwater diminution and endangering the sustainability of the resources occurs in India, China, Mexico, western USA and Pakistan, among others ( Shah 2007 ) . Rising groundwater degrees is a major job in with dirt salinization in Australia and other countries. Salts have moved into the surface soils so that big piece of lands of land have become less suited or even unserviceable for agribusiness ( Anderies 2005 ) . Where groundwater is fresh over pumping leads to groundwater diminution but where groundwater is saline and unserviceable for agribusiness, ooze from irrigation leads to a rise in the ground-water tabular array, salinization, and stagnating H2O, therefore rendering land unserviceable for agribusiness. Changes in overflow due to set down usage alterations: The consequence of transition of woods into croplands is really site-specific depending on incline, dirt, rainfall strength and land screen. Little is identified of the possible hydrological impacts of large-scale transition of waste land into jatropha plantations in India, which will increase harvest transpiration, infiltration and shadowing but will diminish dirt vaporization ( Calder 1999 ) . Moisture recycling: Changes in land usage can easy change evapotranspiration rates e.g. from large-scale deforestation and therefore these alterations can change local clime ( Falkenmark 2007 ) .Possible tracts to cut down inauspicious environmental effectsImproved H2O productiveness and better H2O direction aimed at providing a assortment of ecosystems every bit good as less usage of H2O intensive feedstock ‘s can cut down some effects of biofuel systems on H2O resources. These methods are explained in more item below. Less H2O demanding harvests: Sugarcane and maize need a batch of H2O. In the chief sugar cane countries in Brazil, where rainfall is abundant this is non an issue, but in countries with insufficient or undependable rainfall they need big measures of irrigation H2O. Scientist are making experiments with less demanding harvests such as Jatropha in India which can be grown on dry conditions. Increasing H2O productiveness: There is thought into bettering H2O productiveness by cut downing the sum of H2O needed for harvest production and go forthing more H2O for other utilizations such as the environment ( Molden 2007a ) . Such H2O direction patterns include H2O harvest home, auxiliary irrigation, preciseness irrigation, and dirt H2O preservation patterns. Factors outside H2O include betterments in dirt birthrate, control of plagues and diseases, subsidies and better markets. Reuse and recycling of H2O may already be high and sensed losingss and inefficiencies lower than by and large assumed ( Seckler 1998 ) . Pull offing H2O for multi functionality: Many of the H2O jobs come from large-scale monocultures managed for one ecosystem service either agricultural or biomass production. Increased outputs can travel manus in manus with decreased environmental impacts through increased H2O efficiency, improved H2O quality and increased C segregation ( Pretty 2006 ) . Biofuel can give both benefits and jobs to the H2O sector where it largely depends on the pick of feedstock, location of production, current productiveness, predominating agricultural patterns and the manner H2O is managed. With appropriate steps in H2O direction taking topographic point this could greatly cut down the environmental impacts and assist reconstruct debauched ecosystems. This will depend on how successful these alterations in agricultural direction patterns are brought. Multiple attacks to happening originative solutions are needed to guarantee sustainable production of biofuels.Crops for BiofuelEnergy is needed for every life being on our planet it is required for growing, reproduction, care and motive power this energy is provided by workss. The same energy is originated from the Sun which flows from workss through a web of consumers and decomposers and bit by bit returns the bearer molecule CO2 to the ambiance. Another illustration which is more sudden is fires happening of course from buoy uping work stoppages or by the activity of adult male which is chemically similar to the release of solar energy accumulated by workss. Humans every bit good as some other animate beings use workss f or building but worlds have combusted biomass under certain conditions to provide heat for heat and cookery in both stationary and grip. Due to concerns about the expected exhaustion of oil, energy security and high energy monetary values every bit good as planetary warming the hunt for alternate beginnings of energy is due. Chief focal point is to seek energy for transit of liquid signifier which consumes 50 % of entire usage of crude oil. When the first major crude oil monetary value rise occurred in the 1970 ‘s there was a batch of involvement and analysis of energetic efficiency of agribusiness in general where Diesel engines were ab initio designed to run on vegetable oil. The usage of biofuels did non nevertheless continue to increase because the monetary value of crude oil fell every bit good as the force per unit area to besides develop alternate beginnings. The current state of affairs we are in is nevertheless more complex and this is because crude oil monetary values are lifting because the demand exceeds the production. About all renewable liquid conveyance fuel comes from biodiesel and bio ethyl alcohol from a little assortment of harvests. Fuels such as man-made gasolene and Diesel which are besides liquid fuels play minor functions. However biogas, H and electricity which are non liquid conveyance fuels are besides produced from biomass. Bio ethyl alcohol is produced by agitation of glucose and fruit sugar which are merely obtained from sucrose harvests such as sugar cane or sugar Beta vulgaris. Glucose and fructose can every bit good be formed by hydrolysis of starches from grains, tuber harvests e.g. murphy and manioc. Agitation is followed by distillment and desiccation both energy demanding stairss to bring forth fuel class intoxicant. Burning biomass residues or byproducts as usually done in sugar cane refineries can supply some of the energy necessary in treating. Fermentation produces organic co-products that find usage as carnal nutrient. Biodiesel is formed chemically by trans-esterification of vegetable oils obtained by physical and or chemical separation from oilseed harvests. The procedure reduces long branched molecules less appropriate as fuel to short straight-chained fatty acid methyl esters of lower viscousness and higher cetane figure which are more easy combustible. Trans -esterification utilizations methanol or ethanol and produces glycerol as a coproduct.Future options and possible for enlargementTo increase biofuel production ideally harvest country and or harvest outputs will hold to increase by utilizing harvest residues and dedicated energy harvests every bit good as using more efficient extraction and transition methods. At a planetary degree enlargement of biofuel production must be achieved in the context of 50 % addition in nutrient production by 2030 which explains current concern with moral, nutrient security, agronomic, and ecological issues associated with biofuel production ( Thompson 2008 ) . Greater harvest country but largely greater harvest outputs: Table 1 below shows portion of the entire land country and the entire land country which is non limited by incline, low rain autumn and dirt quality ( FAO-AGL 2003 ) . It shows that merely a little sum of land does non see terrible limitation for rain Federal cropping. This analysis does non widen to the productiveness of land with rough bounds. These land usage transitions force of import ecosystem services and openly vie with the lands other possible values. Due to this a sustainable addition must come from better productiveness of bing land. This is possible by site specific combinations of better production methods, better cultivars and in most instances more inputs of fertiliser and irrigation. universe distribution of area.JPG Table 1. Land country non limited by incline, low rain autumn and dirt quality In recent decennaries harvest productiveness has improved by turning possible outputs every bit good as decreases in the output spread by better timelier operations, more fertilisers, better weed and insect and pest control. Breeding of workss has improved altered cultivars, opposition to disease and late with biotech methods opposition to insects and better weed control through weedkiller opposition. If to increase planetary nutrient production will do a terrible bound on land accessible for conventional feedstock production where at the same clip could duplicate the measure of residues available for transition to biofuel. Extra additions in nutrient supply can besides allow irregular parts from grain excess. Handiness of biomass is highly site specific because residues from harvests and woods are non ‘wastes left to decompose ‘ but fodder for farm animate beings every bit good as a web of consumers and decomposers that play a chief portion in the care of dirt birthrate. Residues besides protect dirts from eroding and continue the physical construction of dirt therefore playing a important portion in minimising taint of surface Waterss. Gross remotion is non possible without impact. Crops of the maximal output will lend most. Low giving up harvests which are grown over broad countries in semi waterless zones are more likely to lend really small because the stubble produced is needed to protect dirt and supply fodder for graze animate beings. States that want to see residues and waste biomass as options need regional stock lists of resources that can place countries of exposure to removal, degree of biomass and cost of transit. For biofuel production it is difficult to gauge how much residues would lend in footings of competition and handiness from other energy extraction ironss. Biomass 10 % of the entire universe energy usage is biomass which the following most of import energy beginning after dodo fuel which contributes to 80 % ( FAO 2008a ) . The usage of nutrient harvest to do biofuels will go on to be a job as the universe struggles to increase nutrient production to better feed a turning population that at present includes about 1 billion who are badly ill-fed. Particular energy harvests are non an efficient manner to avoid competition with nutrient production because they besides need land, H2O, foods and other inputs and hence compete with nutrient production. There is no grounds that non-food harvests can be grown good for energy production on land that could non besides grow harvests for nutrient. Important beginnings of biofuel are residues from agribusiness and forestry. Procedures through which this biomaterial will be transformed into fuel are non yet recognized. Similarly the sum of residues that could be sustainably utilised is unknown in most instances. Deciding this issue of handiness of residues is a merely as of import research activity as the development of transmutation tracts. Evidence suggests biofuels can do a modest ( 10 % ) part to national transit fuel supply in states with big cropland resources relative to population size. However, few states will be important exporters of biofuels. Clearly, biofuels can non be a major beginning of transit fuel in a extremely populated and energy demanding universe.Biomass Conversion to Fuels and Electric PowerUsing thermic and biological procedures biomass can be converted into a assortment of solid, gaseous and liquid fuels. The option of procedure and merchandise depends upon the nature of the biomass feedstock and the market where it will be sold. Biomass and wood coal are solid bio energy merchandises. Gaseous bio-energy merchandises can be formed by anaerobiotic digestion ( biogas ) , thermic or supercritical gasification ( manufacturer gas, or syngas ) , or by upgrading of the primary merchandises of anaerobiotic digestion or gasification ( H and methane ) . Liquid bio energy merchandises are derived from physically, chemically or thermally processing biomass: saccharides, syngas, triglycerides and bio oil/biocrude. Liquid fuel production from saccharides chiefly focuses on ethyl alcohol even though butyl alcohol, furans, isoprenes, butyl alcohol and methane seriess is besides possible to be used. Production from triglycerides on the other manus chiefly focuses on methyl esters ( biodiesel ) . Liquid fuels from bio oil and biocrude include a scope of hydrocarbons suited as gasolene, Diesel fuel or even air power fuel. Besides biomass is able to be converted to electricity which so can supply energy for transit. Electrical propulsion as an option to biofuels for transit is possible although this thought is waiting for the battery engineering cost to cut down. In the bulk of markets fuel costs for electric battery powered vehicles are predicted to be a little per centum of that for sparkignition engines powered by gasolene ( Idaho National Laboratory 2005 ) . Graph 3 below compares the intercrossed electric vehicles ( HEV ) , internal burning engine ( ICE ) vehicles and battery powered vehicles charged by traditional electric grids based on coal fired steam power workss are comparable to gasoline fired in footings of both energy efficiency and nursery gas emanations. Conversely electricity from natural gas fired combined rhythm power workss makes battery powered vehicles one of the most attractive vehicle platforms in footings of both energy efficiency and nursery gas emanations. Through Rankine rhythms, Brayton cycles, of fuel cells biomass can be used as an energy beginning to bring forth electricity power. comparing of vehicles Graph 3. Well-to-Wheel Efficiency and Environmental Impact of Vehicle Technologies. These rhythms are given in more item below: The Ranking Cycle – This involves the direct burning of fuel to raise pressurized steam that is expanded through turbine to bring forth electricity ( Singer 1991 ) . Steam power workss contribute most of the electric power coevals capacity in the universe. Rankine rhythm offer the advantage because it has the ability to straight fire coal and other cheap solid fuels. The Brayton Cycle – This produces electric power by spread outing hot gas through a turbine ( Poullikkas 2005 ) . Open firing biomass straight to bring forth the hot gas watercourse has been found to be impractical since caustic compounds carried with the gas watercourse harm the gas turbine. Gasification or fast pyrolysis of biomass to bring forth syngas or bio oil that can be cleaned before firing in the gas turbine is a more capable option. Because of the easiness of works building, potency for high thermodynamic efficiencies when employed in advanced rhythms and cost effectivity in a broad scope of sizes ( from 10s of kW to 100s of megawatts ) makes the Brayton rhythm one of the best engineerings for bio energy. Fuel Cells – These straight convert chemical energy into work hence short-circuiting Carnot bounds for heat engines ( Dicks and Larminie 2000 ) . This does non intend that fuel cells can change over 100 % of the chemical heat content of fuel into work. In pattern the fuel cell transition efficiencies is 35 – 60 % depending upon the fuel cell design. Therefore fuel cells can bring forth significantly more work from a given sum of fuel than can heat engines. However carbonous fuels must foremost be converted to hydrogen before they are suited for usage in fuel cells. When finding the overall fuel to electricity transition efficiency of a fuel cell energy losingss associated have to besides be considered. At comparatively low temperatures 65 A °C proton exchange membrane ( PEM ) fuel cells operate which is suited for automotive applications, job with bring forthing H is the high costs which have limited its commercial application. Most favoured are high temperature fuel cells for stationary power coevals because of chances for heat recovery. Combined rhythm power systems know that waste heat from one power rhythm can be used to coerce a 2nd power rhythm and were developed to better energy transition efficiency ( Williams and Larson 1993 ) . If a individual heat engine could be built to map between the temperature extremes of firing fuel and the ambient environment this would do combined rhythms be pointless. However temperature and force per unit area boundaries on stuffs of building have disallowed this acknowledgment. Combined rhythms use a top-flight rhythm runing at high temperatures and a bottoming rhythm runing on the rejected heat from the exceeding rhythm. Most normally combined rhythm power workss employ a gas turbine for the top-flight rhythm and a steam turbine for the bottoming rhythm accomplishing overall efficiencies of 50 % or more. Power workss based on high temperature fuel cells are on occasion incorporated with both a gas turbine exceeding rhythm and a steam turbine underside cycling to better efficien cy even more.The Car and Fuel of the FutureA figure of alternate vehicle and fuel options are under consideration to ease the menaces of clime alteration, urban air pollution and foreign oil dependance caused by motor vehicles. Approximately 97 % of all energy consumed by our autos, sport public-service corporation vehicles, new waves, trucks, and aeroplanes is still petroleum-based.Alternate Fuel VehiclesAlternate fuel vehicles ( AFVs ) and their fuels encounter two critical jobs. In general they suffer several market place disadvantages compared to conventional vehicles running on conventional fuels. For this ground in order to win they require authorities inducements. Besides they do non supply typically cost effectual solutions to major energy and environmental jobs which undermines the authorities to step in and assist them. Other than the thought of cost effectual decreases at that place have historically been six major barriers to AFV success: 1. High first cost for vehicle 2. On-board fuel storage issues ( i.e. limited scope ) 3. Safety and liability concerns 4. High fuelling cost ( compared to gasoline ) 5. Limited fuel Stationss 6. Improvements in the competition ( better, cleaner gasolene vehicles ) . All AFVs face the increasing †competition † from improved gasoline-power vehicles.HydrogenIt is really dubious that H vehicles will derive a batch of market incursion. A figure of major engineering discoveries and authorities inducements will be needed for them to be successful. US director of Toyotas advanced engineerings group Bill Reinert said in January 2005 that without multiple discovery we wont see many gross revenues of fuel cell vehicles until at least 2030 ( Truett, 2005 ) . Reinert was asked when fuel cell autos would replace gasolene powered autos where he replied †If I told you ‘never, ‘ would you be upset? † ( Butters 2005 ) . If projected major progresss in cost decrease and public presentation for H engineerings similar progresss should be made for loanblends, batteries and biofuels every bit good. It is really likely we will ne'er see a lasting, low-cost fuel cell vehicle with an efficiency, scope and one-year fuel measure that match even the best current intercrossed vehicle. Out of all AFVs and alternate fuels, fuel cell vehicles running on H are likely the least likely to be a cost effectual solution to planetary heating which is why other thoughts should hold equal policy attending and support.E-HybridsThe stopper in loanblend besides called the e-hybrid which has well lower nursery gas emanations, a much lower one-year fuel measure, a much longer scope than current autos where you can besides fuel at place and fewer substructure jobs than traditional AFVs. Vehicle usage is largely for short trips such as transposing which means for a long period the auto wo n't be in usage where in this period the vehicle can be charged. Typical scope for these autos last around 20-40 stat mis. If the electricity were from CO2 free beginnings so these vehicles would besides hold clear reduced net nursery gas emanations. Since these vehicles besides have gasoline engine means they have many advantages compared to pure electric vehicles. One of import factor is that they are non limited in scope by the entire sum of battery charge. If the battery charge is completing the auto can run on gasolene and be charged when possible. E-hybrids avoid many of the barriers these are: They do non hold a hapless scope. There are no major safety and liability issues but great attention would hold to be taken in the design of any place based system that is used for bear downing. Fueling cost is cheaper when compared to gasoline where it costs about a 3rd of the monetary value per stat mi.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Cultural Perspectives in Education Essay

The word ‘Culture’ refers to civilization or human activity. It can also refer to universal human capability to categorize skills, and to train and convey them characteristically. Therefore, one can say that Culture evolves over a period of time in response to adaptive challenges. What activities are carried out, who should participate, why they are valued and the rules of interaction are coded into the cultural models. There are different ways to educate, express or reveal knowledge to a student. The student’s education very much depends upon the teacher’s philosophy of education. This philosophical point of view appears to be true that could bring a negative influence in the classroom, no matter what syllabus is designed for the student. The students possess different qualities and beliefs that teachers should realize and learn to adapt to in the classroom. If teachers are not able to go beyond the boundaries of social class, religion, race, creed, gender, sex, disability or cultural background, then the focus of the students will also turn heavily upon differences and the classification of students as special needs or underachiever, thus building insensitive pre-expectations toward students in the classroom. â€Å"The primary goal of education is to show students different points of view and encourage them to evaluate their own beliefs. The teacher should help the students to appreciate how one’s observations and interpretations are influenced by social identity and background†. Chang, H. (1993). Students should be allowed to feel free to voice an opinion and empowered to defend it. A student is able to focus on and enjoy learning more when the school and classroom make him feel safe-comfortable with himself and with his surrounding. The learning situation should be made culturally neutral by keeping in mind the potential barriers and obstacles that each student may have. Taking this into account Marda Steffey (2001) suggests a four point motivational framework for culturally open teaching: 1. Establishing inclusion—norms, procedures, and structures woven together to form a learning context in which all learners and teachers feel respected by and connected to one another. 2. Developing attitude—â€Å"norms, procedures and structures that create through relevance and choice a favorable disposition among learners and teachers toward the learning experience or learning goal. 3. Enhancing meaning—norms, procedures, and structures that expand, refine, or increase the complexity of what is learned in a way that matters to learners, includes their values and purposes, and contributes to a critical consciousness. 4. Engendering competence—norms, procedures, and structures that create an understanding for learners of how they are or can be effective in learning something of personal value†. (Nawang, 1999) The main idea of the four points is that when student and teachers find themselves submerged in a unique world of the classroom, the interaction of culture is invaluable for the success of the learning process. Solomon, B. B. (1991). Teacher should recognize any biases or stereotypes in the class room, â€Å"by treating each student as an individual, and respect each student for whom he or she is. Amend any language practices or examples that exclude or degrade any group, should be aware of how students feel about the cultural climate in the classroom†. (Woolbright, 1989) A productive education must start with an awareness of these issues and some basic schemes for overcoming them. Although a variety of teachings can be fruitful, it seems especially cooperative to offer an atmosphere where students can easily hold an open discussion rather than class session in which a correct answer is required. True open discussion will send a message of authority between equal students who have something substantial to add to a common endeavor. Sharing the facts and principles of one’s discipline with students is very important as that helps to prepare an environment of comfort, trust and joint respect. Therefore, such an environment makes it possible for people to exchange ideas and thoughts on complex and often terrifying issues. It opens a way for students to carry out a common ground of joint practices and respect which can bind students together and at the same time make it easier for them to understand and observe many differences. The teacher should not only establish a content of diversity but a procedure that creates and demonstrate appreciation of diversity. It is important to keep in mind that students always observe and learn their teachers’ behavior as well as their expressions. The classroom environment not only represent the fundamental value of appreciation of diversity of cultures nevertheless it also capitulate great rewards in terms of vital thinking skills, especially the aptitude to value sophisticated multiple point of views on complex rational and ethical issues. The school or college should recognize all of the various types of diversities, whether it is cultural or not. Students should understand when they go their classroom that they will be interacting with many different types of students from all walks all of life. Levinson, B. A. , and Holland, D. (1996). They should understand that they are all in this facility for a reason and that it doesn’t matter what they look like or what language they speak, they need to cooperate to make their class environment more conducive to learning. It is very unfortunate to say that not much improvement in this has been made around the world except few countries, while in rest there is still school and colleges where cultural factors are given preferences. Every discipline is influenced by the inequity of power that exists across racial and cultural groups, between genders, and among other socially created classes of difference. In spite of advances in race and cultural relations, gender equality, and religious tolerance, significant documented differences continues to exist around the world. In order to gain a true moderate education, school administration should honor diversity of cultures. It should recognize holidays of other ethnicities and always study new and interesting ways of life. The students of the respective schools and colleges should â€Å"love learning about other cultures and how they interact with one another†. (Harold, 2006) The students should be allowed to do arts and projects that are representatives of other cultures and take great pride in the fact that they now have knowledge of their brothers and sisters around the world. Educators have a responsibility to assist the people who are privileged enough to be students in becoming aware of the inequalities around them. Therefore, each educator should work to infuse each class with the diverse voices that contributed to the knowledge base of the discipline. References Chang, H. (1993) Affirming Children’s Roots: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Early Care and Education: California Tomorrow. Hodgkinson, Harold L. (2006) Education in Social and Cultural Perspectives: Prentice-Hall Levinson, B. A. , and Holland, D. (1996). The cultural production of the educated person: An introduction. In B. A. Levinson, D. Foley, and D. Holland (Eds. ), Albany: SUNY Press. Phuntsog, Nawang. Magic of culturally responsive pedagogy: In search of the Genie’s lamp in multicultural education. Teacher Education Quarterly, Summer 1999 Solomon, B. B. (1991) Impediments to Teaching a Culturally Diverse Undergraduate Population: Kendall/Hunt Publishing. Woolbright, C. (Ed. ). (1989) Valuing Diversity on Campus: A Multicultural Approach. Bloomington, Ind. : Association of College Unions-International.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

buy custom Secure Systems essay

buy custom Secure Systems essay Computer security refers to the measures undertaken to protect computer information and property against theft, natural disasters and malicious intentions such as corruption of information. The security system adopted is meant to ensure that only eligible users access the information and computer rooms. Organizations all over the globe adopt various computer security systems that, they deem provide maximum security. Therefore, numerous computer security systems could be chosen. For instance, use of passwords, encryption of data, use of firewalls, locking computer rooms after use, installation of alarms in computer rooms, physical protection by use of security guards.. All these measures would ensure that computer information and properties are secure. There is a growing threat of computer security, which systems are the most secure? According to research, computers security could be ensured by use of passwords. These are the secret codes and numbers that are developed to secure computers against unauthorized individuals. Passwords would ensure that only eligible persons log in to retrieve the desired information. Research asserts that passwords could be actual words or any other desirable character. Lehtinen, Russell, Gangemi (2006) intimate that in order to ensure that computer security is achieved through passwords, the organization should develop unique codes for each department. In addition, passwords should not be leaked to outsiders or unauthorized individuals in the organization as this would lead interference with the information. Each computer and information should be assigned a password that is easy to memorize. Passwords should not be saved in the computers because they could be easily discovered and used for the retrieval of confidential information. Research asserts that individuals must consider the strength of the password before resolving to use it before resolving to adopt it. Attackers through guessing could easily crack weak passwords; therefore, accessing the hidden information. Password effectiveness would also be enhanced by taking care of computer viruses. According to Stallings Brown (2008) an antivirus should be installed in the computer, to ensure that passwords are not affected leading to the ultimate loss of vital information. In cases where passwords have been leaked out, the organization should act faster to change them. Changes would ensure that the original password does not log into the information. This will promote a high degree of protection to organizational details intended for competitive advantage and other vital gains. Data intended for transmission should be encrypted to enhance its security. Data encryption refers to the process by which the information being transmitted is transformed into a read only form using a decryption key. According to research, the decryption key ensures that information being transmitted through the network is safe because one cannot access it without the key used. Information would be safer in case the secret key is only shared among the communicators. This means the intended recipient thus averting any interference or loss of information would only access the information. Gollmann (2011) asserts that the protocols in the database will be protected through encryption thus, ensuring that the principles governing communication are observed to the latter. Encryption would be suitable where the information is shared via the internet, there are many users with different characters and some would want to read and alter the information. Computer users should ensure that they regularly update the encryption to enhance its efficiency. Straub, Goodman, Baskerville (2008) observe that lack of regular updating would lead to loss of vital information or the exposure of the encryption key to unauthorized individuals. Research asserts that encryption is one of the vital computer protection mechanisms because it includes many technicalities especially in the access to information. Under this system, all the information in the database would be safe as it is transmitted. Firewalls are used to enhance computer security. These filters allow communications only under certain circumstances. Research asserts that they are helpful because they eliminate unauthorized network users from accessing the information. According to Newman (2009), firewalls work under rules where they only allow the authorized individuals to access the required information. The rules governing the functioning of firewalls are vital because they determine and weigh clients before allowing for connection. They only connect the authorized networks and eliminate those deemed unauthorized and corruptive to the system information. The clients host name is compare to the existing rules and validity determined. Firewalls provide the owner with numerous warnings in cases where unauthorized attempts to access the information has been made. This would provide for a room, to take corrective measures and ensure enhanced protection. Drab (2011) intimates that in order to ensure firewalls work pr operly, the server should continuously update them. They should not be allowed to run out time. According to research, the secrecy of the computer system would be enhanced by strategically placing the firewall betwee the public network and the organizations intranet. This will make sure that information is filtered before getting into the public domain. The information would not be in a position, to be interfered with because of the control measures existing between these two networks. The closure of computer rooms after use boosts computer security. This is a protective mechanism that ensures computer rooms with valuable information are kept under lock and the keys safely kept. According to research, the organization should not allow its employees to carry the keys to computer rooms freely. Delloite (2011) asserts that keys should be kept at designated places within the organization. In cases where computer rooms are left open, thieves could get in and take away the machines leading to loss of vital information. They could easily take computers perceived to be carrying the organizations strategic decisions; this will retard everything and could lead to negative publicity if the information is altered for personal interest. Unlocked doors could also motivate unauthorized individuals to get into the computer rooms and read the organizations secrets. All this would lead to loss of vital information to outsiders and competitors. Wilshusen (2009) observes that computer rooms should also be closed when vital information is being processed. The system should ensure that the real individuals working on the information access the room. In cases where the keys to the rooms are lost, faster action should be taken to ensure that new padlocks and keys are bought. This is to ensure that lost keys are not used to access the rooms. This security measure would be enhanced by making sure that well made doors and windows are used. Metallic doors are more preferable because they cannot be brought down and in cases of theft, it would be easy to tell. Research asserts that the locking of computer room doors would reinforce other measures put in place because there is no entrance into the place making sure that no passwords are lost. Installation of alarms in computer rooms would promote computer security. Organizations have embraced alarms to boost computer security. These devices warn the concerned individuals of any unauthorized interferences. According to Pooch, Fisch, White, Gregory (1996) alarms should be strategically placed in computer rooms and should be able to detect unauthorized access. Alarms are supposed to work perfectly by raising a concern in advance. Organizations use alarms especially in the prevention of crimes relating to computer loss. The alarm system of protection is effective especially when the computer operator is far away from the computers. Alarms would ensure that they gets to the rooms in time and prevent any form of crime. Research asserts that alarms would be effective if set at secret points where no one can access them. Alarms are vital due to their automatic nature of operation; they are not supposed to be controlled but automatically detect unauthorized individuals and raise a call. The alarm should be regularly checked to ensure it functions to the maximum. Pooch, Fisch, White, Gregory (1996), intimate that any deviations in its working should be sense and corrective measures taken to increase its efficiency. The alarm system of protection would be vital in large organizations where operations are dispersed. This is because of the large distance covered by the alarms warning. A central control system should be set up to oversee the operations of alarms and make sure they are not interfered with. They should always be modified to achieve the desired quality and continued efficiency. Human security is a vital security measure. This is a physical protection measure for computers. This is a system where guards are employed and assigned the different sections in the computer areas. They would be there to ensure that only authorized individuals get access to the computer rooms. Individuals are supposed to identify themselves before getting into information processing rooms. Guards ensure that computers are safe from thieves. According to research, they provide maximum security, which would ensure not all computer system is interfered with. Lehtinen, Russell, Gangemi (2006) observe that human security is vital in computer protection because it provides a more physical sense of protection as guards are able to look at the vents as they occur. Strict guards would ensure all the computers are safe by ensuring that everyone getting into the rooms is frisked and ordered to give the purpose for the visit to computer rooms. This kind of system would provide an automatic bar rier to malicious individuals especially if the guards are not subject to being changed through bribes. Under this security measure, organizations should consider it necessary to move or change the guards if there are any signs of conflict of interest. This would make sure that quality protection is achieved thus, putting off any fears of computer losses. Research asserts that human security would be vital especially in large organizations to complement other security measures. Human beings would provide security to both the computer information and machine theft. The security provided by guards is trustworthy because of its physical nature. Guards should also be fairly paid to ensure quuality work is done. The adoption of wireless transmission ensures computer security. Wireless transmissions would be vital in keeping off hackers. This is because they mostly depend on physical means to access data transmitted over the networks. This security measure would ensure that data transferred across the networks is as intact as possible. Hackers and other unauthorized individuals are not able to access the information and alter it because they are unaware of the source and contents. This vital security measure would ensure the organization is in a better position, to communicate and exchange information over long distance without fear of loss of confidentiality. Wilshusen (2009) points out that a stronger wireless transmission is adopted to boost the protective quality of the information. The transmitted information would thus be received in the desired format. Research asserts that the use of wireless transmission would ensure that the information is transported at a faster rate through the ne twork hence leaving no possibility for interference with the information. Wireless transmission ensures that the intended persons only open the information sent or received. It is a security measure that adopts basic technology leading to reduced costs. Cloud computing is being used as a security system. This method ensures several individuals share information transmission channels. According to research, it is ensures that computers are protected because it helps in the storage of user accounts in a remote database. This will ensure that no unauthorized individual accesses them to change and cause any other kind of harm to the documents. Cyberspace Policy Review (2011) asserts that cloud computing acts as a hindrance for unauthorized individuals willing to access the computer at any point because of the rules and procedures required. It demands numerous authentication details before allowing one to access the information. Stallings Brown (2008) asserts that this security measure works well when managed in an efficient manner. Steps should be taken to ensure that cloud computing is effective. It should not be interfered with because it could lead to the unexpected exposure of secret information. Employees should not be allowed to abuse cloud computing because it would be inefficient in its further operations. According to research, cloud computing should be updated every moment to make sure it is in line with the existing trends. Cloud computing is also used to reinforce other security measure such as passwords due to its demand for such codes before access is allowed. In addition, it protects the initial details of all the information that is sent. There are many computer security systems. All of these methods are vital because they complement each other in ensuring the safety of computers. They are all vital techniques of ensuring there is a maximum security to the computers. According to research, all the computer protection systems have positive and negative sides. For instance, passwords could be easily forgotten leaving to the loss of vital information. Firewalls are negative because they could easily malfunction and lead to the loss of data. Computer threats are on an increase, but it is difficult for one to determine the best to use among the large collection. According to research, no method is better than the other is. This is because all computer protection systems carry both positive and negative impacts. Cyberspace Policy Review (2011) asserts that there is no protection system superior to the rest because they mainly complement each other in their operation. Research indicates that, for the success of an organizati on, all these methods need to be unified for maximum security, to be achieved. None of the methods is self-reliant. This is enough to prove that there is no instant of superiority among all the methods. They should be incorporated and complemented to achieve the best for the organization. In conclusion, computer security refers to the undertaking of steps to protect computer information and machines against losses. There are numerous computer security systems. Passwords are helpful in ensuring that unauthorized individuals do not access secret information. They supposed to be regularly altered in cases of discovery. Firewalls are security measures that are used to filter information and respective users. It ensures that the information is only available to legal users. Alarms provide an efficient form of security especially in machine theft. They cover large distances and are suitable for computer theft prevention in large companies. Human security is a form of physical security that could be adopted to protect computers. They protect both data details and machines from losses. Guards could be regularly changed and rotated to ensure that they work and deliver efficiently. Organizations are using cloud computing as a security technique. Under cloud computing, one is no t able to access details as they are stored in the remote database. Wireless transmissions are vital security measures that deny hackers an opportunity to alter information. Computer protection methods are numerous, and there is none that is superior compared to others because they continuously depend on each other for success. 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Monday, October 21, 2019

Example Essay

Example Essay Example Essay Example Essay Example of essay serves several functions. First, example essay gives you idea for your own essay writing. Second, example is your guide to essay formatting. At the same time, you should not forget that example essay is also your risk because all example essays are easily accessible by any person at any time. Thus, think twice before using free example essay. If you do not want to risk, try our custom essay help . Our writers will write your essay from scratch and meet your specific academic writing requirements. We guarantee confidentiality and full adherence to requirements. Example Essay Excerpt Purifying water with any kind of fuel is not going to be inexpensive. During planning for the big Feather River Project, Californians investigated doing the job with sea-water conversion plants. The Feather River conduits will deliver 1.3 billion gallons per day to Southern California. Preliminary plans indicated that it might be possible to build giant distillation plants producing more than 100 million gallons a day the OSW's biggest to date has produced only 1.4 million gallons a day, remember. There was one big flaw in the plan, however. Each of these big installations would have required 6.5 percent of Southern California's entire natural-gas output, and it would take ten of them to do the job. Desalting sea water would require two-thirds of all the natural-gas power in the area. Understandably, work was pushed on the Feather River Project. At present our government believes it can desalinate sea water at a cost of $1.25 per 1000 gallons. For a thirsty man, this seems dirt chea p, but to that figure must be added other expenses, including costs of transporting sea water to the plant and fresh water into homes. These transportation charges are well fixed; the problem is to reduce the expense of conversion. Some authorities feel that artificially produced fresh water is so costly of fuel that it will never be widely used for agriculture, which accounts for most of the world's water consumption, or for industry. Obviously human beings won't starve before they sacrifice wealth for food, but present use of desalinated sea water for farming is limited to the island of Guernsey in the English Channel. When droughts occur, the island's tomato crop suffers, and since this is the big business on that island the farmers have installed a 600,000-gallons-per-day standby distillation plant as insurance against the times when it doesn't rain. An example of industrial sea-water use in the United States is the steam-electric power generating plant of the Southern Californi a Edison Company at Mandalay Beach, California, where a distillation plant desalts ocean water at the rate of 100,000 gallons a day for the power plant. In addition to combination electric-power-desalting plants, there is another approach that may help lower the cost of desalination. The ocean is about 3 1/2 percent mineral, and we need minerals, too. Of 77 important minerals, for example, the United States has an ample domestic supply of only 11. How about mining the sea for these needed materials? Custom Essay Writing The above example essay is good, but it is not custom written. If you want to get an essay written especially for you from scratch, try our professional essay writing services. We can handle all essay topics!